The Project Report

In addition to the requirements for the scope of the project report, there are also a number of requirements for the content of the report. First, it is important that you, as a student, practice and develop the ability to clearly communicate academic content while adhering to the norms for scientific writing. This means that in the project, you must follow certain requirements – both in relation to content (sections of the report) and formal guidelines regarding form (citations, references, etc.).

In relation to the content of the project, you should remember that there is no absolute or universal plan for a project report. However, it is possible to outline some elements that should, as a general rule, be present in a project report for Communication and Digital Media. What else, beyond these ‘basic elements’, may appear will depend on your specific research question.

You should not view the following outline of the 'basic elements' in the project report as a linear presentation, as the individual elements' placement in the report can appear in a different order – depending on your topic, approach to the project, and so on. Additionally, not all elements need to be included in their own sections.

Project reports can be structured in many different ways. The crucial thing is that the structure is logical, so the report has a clear narrative thread. Examples of possible sections:

• Cover Page: Project title, names of group members, supervisor's name, semester (including study program), university, and submission month and year.
• Title Page: This should include the project title, names of group members, supervisor’s name, semester (including study program), university, submission month and year, and the report’s length.
• Table of Contents: Overview of the sections in the project and any appendices or additional material.
• Introduction: Here you should introduce your project: What is it about, why do you find it interesting, why is it relevant, and so on. This section also includes a delineation of the topic, and the research question is presented and briefly justified.
• Methodology: This section contains the project’s methodological and theoretical considerations. It is important to include because it is where you demonstrate that the project’s conclusions have an acceptable scientific level. In this context, it is often natural to present the overall structure of the report (see also the section on philosophy of science).
• Theory: In this section, you explain the relevant points and concepts of the theories the project is based on.
• Analysis: In this section, you apply the theories to your topic/problem, which is then analyzed.
• Discussion: Based on the research question and analysis, you argue for and against the main points of the project.
• Conclusion: Here you summarize the key points of the project in brief. It is important to clarify a clear link between the research question and the conclusion. As a general rule, the conclusion should not include information that has not already been presented in the project.
• Perspective: Here, you can connect your project and problem to other issues in the surrounding society. The perspective can be an opportunity to show that your project is relevant and that you see many possibilities for further work on it. In the perspective, you do not need to answer all the questions you raise – this is a chance to think outside the box after concluding your research question.
• Process Analysis (Process Description): A reflective analysis/description of the group’s collaboration and work process.
• Bibliography: This includes all sources (books, articles, informational materials, websites, videos, etc.) used in the project.
• Appendices: Appendices to your report or paper are elements that you either could not include or that you want to attach because they add value to your report. These could be, for example, a video, a website, or another product you created that cannot be printed directly.

Additionally, the report can include other elements, such as ‘Presentation of Empirical Data’, ‘Considerations on Product Development’, or a model of the project.

There are set limits on the length of a semester project. These limits serve a purpose, as it is not beneficial for anyone—neither you nor your supervisor—if you use 500 pages to write something that could have been written in 100 pages. It is an art to learn how to limit yourself, and therefore, there is a cap on how many pages each student may write. The limits are as follows:

For the specific number of minimum and maximum pages, refer to the module description in the study regulations. 

For individual assignments you may encounter during your studies, the page count will vary. You can find the requirements for each assignment in the study regulations. 

For semester projects, the following guidelines also apply:

One standard page corresponds to 2400 characters, including spaces. The specified page count only includes the written content, excluding title page, preface, table of contents, bibliography, abstract, and appendices. When counting pages, footnotes are included, but illustrations are not. Text excerpts, such as quotes, must not be inserted as illustrations but should be included as text.

Even if a group stays within the allowed number of standard pages, there may be additional pages in the project, which could make it appear as though the allowed limit is exceeded. The group must always state the total number of characters with spaces and the corresponding number of standard pages on the front page and title page of the project. Guidance for the front page and title page can be found on Moodle.

If a group wishes to deviate from the regulations in the study plan regarding the length of an assignment or project, they must apply for an exemption from the study board. However, note that the study board is unlikely to grant exemptions for page counts in semester projects—especially for two-person groups requesting more pages.

 

A quote is the exact use of another person's written or spoken formulation. It can be useful to include a quote in the project when it expresses an important point, possibly in a particularly precise, impactful, or remarkable way. On the other hand, quotes must be used with care, as too many quotes can give the text an unoriginal "cut-and-paste" feel.

It is important to be careful with the markings so that it is clear when the quote begins and ends. Short quotes (under 40 words) are integrated into the running text, enclosed in quotation marks. Longer quotes are given as a separate block of text without quotation marks, but with indentation. In both cases, the quote must be followed by a citation.

A quote is, as mentioned, an exact reproduction—even if there are punctuation or spelling mistakes in the original text (if there are errors in the passage you're quoting from, you can choose to use [sic], indicating that you're aware of the mistake). However, you can change the first letter of the quote to uppercase or lowercase, and its final period or comma, so it fits the context in which you place it. Any other changes you make should be clearly marked. Omissions are indicated with three spaced dots before, after, and in between. Omissions at the beginning or end of a quote usually do not require three dots. Any added words or omissions/additions of emphasis are indicated in square brackets.

Example (note: the text should be indented, even though it is not in the example below):

Quotes should be few and well-chosen... The crucial point with a quote is, as mentioned, that it is used for something. Your text, in which the quote is used, must have its own purpose or message, not just present what others have said... For example, if you want to compare two texts, you should not just quote several passages from each, but say something about the relationship between them. (Rienecker & Jørgensen, 2001, p. 192)

Each time you quote or write a passage inspired by something you have read elsewhere, you must make a source reference—whether it's from a book, a newspaper, a magazine, a website, etc. EVERY time you write something based on another source, there must be a citation. This also applies if the referenced material is something you have written yourself, e.g., in a previous project.

The purpose of citations is:

• To give credit to the authors behind the works you use.
• To document that you have scientific support for your work.
• To enable the reader to obtain the works and examine whether they would have reached the same conclusions as you, based on the same foundation.

Citations are a significant part of academic project work. They should be short and consistent and placed wherever necessary. There are different ways to make citations. In Communication and Digital Media, it is decided that sources should be cited according to the APA reference system. Page numbers are not required but are recommended for clarity.

FOR BOOKS
APA reference system, example:
(Rienecker & Jørgensen, 2001, p. 192)
Here, the authors' last names (note: use & instead of "and"), the year the book was published, and the page you have read are indicated.

For works with two authors, both are mentioned in all citations. If there are three, four, or five authors, all authors are mentioned the first time the work is cited. For subsequent citations to the same work, only the first author's last name is used, followed by "et al." (abbreviation of the Latin "et alii," meaning "and others") in running citations, but all authors should be listed in the reference list.

Example:
(Rogers et al., 2011, p. 437)

WITHOUT AUTHOR
For works without an author, the title is used in place of the author's name.

Example:
(Study Regulations, §15, no. 6).

WWW DOCUMENTS
When linking to websites, reference either the author or the organization behind the website.

SAME SOURCE
If you reference the same source repeatedly (without referring to other sources in between), do as follows:

For works with two authors, both are mentioned in all citations.

For works with three, four, or five authors, all authors are mentioned the first time the work is cited. For subsequent references to the same work, only the first author's last name is used, followed by "et al." and the year in running citations, but all authors should be listed in the reference list.

If referencing a work with six or more authors, only the first author's last name is used, followed by "et al." and the year.

Example:
(Rogers et al., 2011, p. 437)

Note: "Ibid" is not used according to APA.

GENERAL
Whether it's a book, article, or a link, it is always the authors of the text being referenced—not the editor of the work the text may be a part of.

It is crucial that your citations are completely accurate. To make it easier for yourselves, it's a good idea to write them down immediately, so you don’t suddenly find it hard to locate the place you need to cite. You can also use tools like RefWorks or Mendeley to collect and manage references and generate citations. Alternatively, Microsoft Word also has the option to create a 'bibliography.'

You can find more information on correct use of citations and quotes on the website Stopplagiat.nu.

There will always be mistakes in a project – both typographical errors, punctuation and spelling mistakes, as well as content-related issues regarding coherence – no matter how much one edits and reads through it. The likelihood of mistakes typically increases when there are multiple authors, which is often the case in projects.

Semester projects can be quite extensive – up to 100 pages – and since you will often be working together with others to write them, it is important that the project as a whole appears consistent. This will affect the overall impression of your project by the supervisor and examiner, and therefore also the grading.

In all study regulations, it states:

“In the assessment of all written works, regardless of the language in which they are written, there is an evaluation of the student’s spelling and formulation skills. The assessment of the linguistic performance is based on orthographic accuracy and compliance with the norms of formal academic writing, as well as stylistic fluency. The linguistic performance must always be considered as an independent factor in the overall assessment. However, no exam can be passed solely due to a good linguistic performance, nor can an exam be failed solely due to a poor linguistic performance.” (typically section 8, page 11)

Therefore, remember to allocate sufficient time for proofreading at the end of the project process. Additionally, it is a good idea to agree within the group from the beginning on how you will write, such as whether to use abbreviations, write short or long sentences, and so on. This can make it easier to ensure that the project appears consistent. Moreover, it can be helpful to set aside time for proofreading during the project process. Some groups prefer to read through the document together. In that case, you can find a large screen and sit together to go through it all. Others may prefer to delegate the proofreading task to one or two people. But make sure everyone in the group is familiar with the formal requirements, and that everyone can write correctly and use punctuation properly. It will come back to haunt you later if you don’t have a good grasp of spelling.

The reference list is an alphabetically arranged list of all works cited in the report/thesis. In other words, it is a list of all the works you have referred to in your project.

However, the reference list should contain more information about the work than a citation. The principle is that the reference list must include all the information necessary to identify the source uniquely, for example, in a library or database. The information required depends on the type of source, but here the most important guidelines are given. In Communication and Digital Media, it has been decided that the reference list should be compiled according to APA Style.

Below is a selection of reference types where APA 6th edition is applied.

Note: If the reference in the list spans multiple lines, the 2nd and subsequent lines should be indented, and double line spacing should be used. This may be difficult to show on a webpage, so the examples below may not display correctly in this regard.

BOOKS:
Author's last name, first initial. (Year of publication). Title: subtitle (in italics). (Edition). Place of publication: Publisher.

One author, example:
Kvale, S. (1997). Interview: An introduction to the qualitative research interview. Copenhagen: Hans Reitzels Forlag.

Two authors, example:
Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2009). Interview: An introduction to a craft (2nd ed.). Copenhagen: Hans Reitzels Forlag.

Three authors, example:
Hagen, K. B., Herbert, R., Jamtvedt, G., & Mead, J. (2008). Evidence-based practice. Copenhagen: Munksgaard Danmark.

When there are multiple authors, they are separated by commas, with an ampersand (&) between two authors. Up to seven authors are included, and before the last author, use “, &.” If there are eight or more authors, list the first six followed by “...,” and then the last author. The edition is not mentioned for the first edition. The place of publication is the city where the book was published.

CHAPTERS IN EDITED WORKS:
Author’s last name, first initial. (Year of publication). Title of the chapter. In Editor’s first initial, last name (Ed.), Book title (in italics) (pp. beginning page-ending page). Place of publication: Publisher.

Example:
Halkier, B. (2010). Focus groups. In S. Brinkmann & L. Tanggaard (Eds.), Qualitative methods: A textbook (pp. 121-125). Copenhagen: Hans Reitzels.

RESEARCH ARTICLES (JOURNAL ARTICLES) IN PRINT
Author’s last name, first initial. (Year of publication). Title of the article. Journal name (in italics), volume (in italics)(issue), page numbers.

Example:
Jakobsen, R. (1967). Linguistics and poetics. Vindrosen, 14(7), 41-62.

RESEARCH ARTICLES (JOURNAL ARTICLES) IN ELECTRONIC FORM – FROM LIBRARY ONLINE PAID DATABASES
Author’s last name, first initial. (Year of publication). Title of the article. Journal name (in italics), volume (in italics)(issue), page numbers. Link with the URL where the article is found.

Example:
Wodak, R., & Reisigl, M. (1999). Discourse and racism: European perspectives. Annual Review of Anthropology, 28(1), 175-199. Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=7&sid=9645d9de-4bf8-49e7-9982-4a09415dc2da%40sessionmgr110&hid=106&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=aph&AN=2620023

WORKS WITHOUT AUTHOR
Here, the title is placed in the author’s name position, and as much of the same information as possible is included as mentioned above.

DOI
DOI (Digital Object Identifier) is a kind of ISBN number for electronic material, e.g., 10.1177/1077800414562896. It is a permanent identifier assigned to an electronic document, so it can always be found, even if the internet address changes. The DOI number can be directly inserted into the search field of a browser. If the electronic material has a DOI, it should be included.

Example:
Revsbæk, L., & Tanggaard, L. (2015). Analyzing in the present. Qualitative Inquiry, 21(4), 376-387.
doi:10.1177/1077800414562896

WWW DOCUMENT
Here, the source, title (in italics), date, and URL are written.

Example:
The Danish Institute for Human Rights. The UN Human Rights System. Retrieved March 2, 2015, from http://www.humanrights.dk/about-us/the-un-human-rights-system

GENERAL
The reference list is ordered alphabetically by the author’s last name. In the case of multiple authors, it is the first author listed on the book cover, article title, etc. You should always retain the order in which the authors are listed in the source. If there are multiple sources by the same author, these are placed chronologically. If there are multiple sources with the same author and publication year, add a, b, c, etc., immediately after the year, both in the running text citations and in the reference list.

It is very important that the reference list is completely correct to avoid the risk of plagiarism. Therefore, it is a good idea to compile the reference list during the project period. This way, you ensure that you do not suddenly realize you’ve submitted a book with missing information.

REMEMBER
The book title and subtitle must be in italics.
For chapters in edited works, it is the book title (not the chapter title) that should be in italics.
For journal articles, the journal name and volume number should be in italics.
For electronic journal articles found in online databases, include the URL where the article can be found.

The methodology section is a fixed part of the problem-oriented project and includes the project's methodological and philosophical considerations. For most new university students, philosophy of science is a new subject. As a result, many also experience that philosophy of science is one of the elements that particularly distinguishes the problem-oriented project work at university from projects they have done earlier in their secondary education.

As a student, you will receive instruction in the subject of philosophy of science during the first semesters. Here, you are introduced to the basic issues of philosophy of science (epistemology, methodology) as well as a range of philosophical approaches that are significant for the discussion of scientific validity within different academic traditions relevant to communication and digital media. Below, you will get a brief and general introduction to philosophy of science and an understanding of the subject's relevance for you as a student.

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE?
Philosophy of science is a philosophical discipline concerned with studying the methods, norms, and background of the sciences. In other words, philosophy of science is a set of theories about what science is and should be. This means that different philosophical approaches are based on different ontological understandings (that is, the study of what exists and how it exists) and epistemological starting points (that is, theories of knowledge or the study of the various assumptions about the world that influence the way we produce knowledge). In your bachelor's program, you will primarily work with the philosophy of science specific to your field.

This means that the philosophical discipline is used to discuss the particular areas of communication and digital media; it is about applying philosophy of science – not about philosophy of science as a discipline for its own sake. Therefore, philosophy of science is about ensuring there is a connection between your chosen problem (formulation), the methods and theories you use to address this problem, and the conclusions you can draw.

WHY PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE?
The inclusion of philosophy of science is one of the elements in the project that helps give the project an acceptable scientific level. Science is not just science. Therefore, in your project work, you must reflect on what it means that you have created new knowledge – and on what premises this has occurred.